Contests & More: Words of the Week Archive

November 13, 2008

Root
JUR(E), JURIS – to swear; law

This root, from the Latin jurare, meaning “to swear”, is related to the root jus, which means “law” (and gives us such words as justice and justify).  Some obvious words that come from this root include jury and juror, which refer to people who “swear” to uphold the “law”.  Another common word that comes from this root is injury, which originally meant “a violation of the law; a broken oath”.  Today, injury has been expanded to mean any harm that is done to a person or thing (particularly physical harm).

• abjure (v.) [ab-, “away from” + jure, “to swear”] – to renounce, repudiate, or retract
  After my arguments were disproved by the scientific study, I abjured my earlier opinions.
  Noun forms: abjuration – the act of renouncing
  abjurer – one who renounces
• conjure (v.) [con-, “together” + jure, “to swear”] – to bring into being; to call to mind; to command or affect
  No matter how hard I tried, I could not conjure up any ideas for my paper on Moby Dick.
  Noun form: conjuration – the act of calling on or invoking a sacred name; magical incantation
  conjuror – one who brings things into being as if by magic; a magician
  Note: This word originally meant “to charge with a solemn task”, as in the case of a judge swearing to carry out the law.  Gradually, the word took on other meanings, starting with “command”, then “call upon”, and finally its more common modern meanings, “to call to mind” and “to bring into being”.
• jurisdiction (n.) [juris, “law” + diction, “speaking”] – power, authority or control (especially the legal range of an institution of a governing body, such as a court, school, or police force)
  We would love to put our rules into effect everywhere, but our jurisdiction is limited to our county.
  Adjective form: jurisdictional
• jurisprudence (n.) [juris, “law” + prudence, “wisdom”] – the philosophy or study of law
  The leading experts on American jurisprudence all agreed that the new law was unconstitutional.
  Adjective form: jurisprudent
• objurgate (v.) [ob-, “against” + jur, “to swear” + [i]g, “to drive” + -ate] – to denounce strongly; to yell at
  I try not to objurgate my children unless they do something that puts themselves or others at risk.
  Noun form: objurgation
  Adjective form: objurgatory
• perjury (n.) [per-, “beyond” + jur, “to swear” + -y] – to swear falsely; to lie under oath
  Judge Wilson was very strict about honesty; he absolutely would not tolerate perjury in his courtroom.
  Verb form: perjure
  Related noun form: perjurer

October 27, 2008

Root
VEN(E), VENT – to come

From the Latin venire, this root gives us many common and SAT words, including a large number of words based on the same few prefixes.  Today, we’ll focus on two of those prefixes: ad-, meaning “toward”, and co(n)-, meaning “together”.  These combinations of prefixes and venire produce, among other common words, adventure and convention. The literal meaning of adventure is “to come toward”, which gradually became “a goal or trip”, which in turn took on a sense of danger or excitement.  The most common meaning of convention, “a large gathering or coming together”, is fairly literal; we’ll deal with another meaning below.

• advent (n.) [ad-, “toward” + vent, “come”] – beginning; arrival; coming into view; invention
  Before the advent of modern sanitary techniques, surgeries were often deadlier than the conditions they were intended to cure.
• adventitious (adj.) [ad-, “toward” + vent, “come” + -itious] – added from outside; external; accidental
  Many of the deadliest human viruses are adventitious, having begun in other species and only recently adapted to affect humans.
  Noun form: adventitiousness
  
• convene (v.) [con-, “together” + vent, “come”] – to come together or assemble; to cause to assemble or summon
  The judge convened the officers of her court each morning promptly at 9 a.m.
  Adjective form: convenient – easy to access or use
• conventional (adj.) [con-, “together” + vent, “come” + -ion + -al] – conforming to accepted standards; ordinary or unoriginal
  When conventional medicines failed to cure her cold, Marie resorted to aromatherapy, acupuncture, and other, even stranger, treatments.
  Noun forms: conventionality – the state of being conventional; convention – a commonly accepted rule or practice
• covenant (n.) [co-, “together” + ven, “come” + -ant] – a formal agreement or promise
  The covenant between the formerly warring nations included an open border and a promise of free trade.
  Adjective form: covenantal

October 20, 2008

Root
PATH, PATI, PASSI – suffering, feeling

This root, unlike most of the roots we’ve studied, derives not from Latin but from Greek.  In fact, the original Greek word, pathos, has survived as an English word (see list below).  Many common words come from this root, including passion (“strong feeling”), passive (“without feeling”), patient (literally, “one who suffers”), and compatible (“feeling the same way”).  Pathetic also derives from this root; literally, a pathetic person is one who suffers, and who thus arouses feelings of pity in others.

In addition, there are a whole host of words that end with “-pathy”, including the common words sympathy (“shared feeling”) and telepathy (literally, “feeling at a distance,” although we usually use it in relation to reading other people’s thoughts, rather than feelings).

Many medical words (usually describing painful conditions) use this suffix as well, including osteopathy (describing bone conditions), cardiopathy (describing heart conditions), and neuropathy (describing nerve conditions).  Some other medical words from this root include sociopath (“one who suffers from a social condition”), psychopath (“one who suffers from a mental condition”), pathogen (“a cause of suffering”), and pathology (literally, “the study of suffering”).

• antipathy (n.) [anti-, “against” + path, “feeling” + -y] – strong dislike or hatred; the object of such dislike
   I feel a great antipathy toward anyone who attempts to restrict my right to free speech.
  Adjective form: antipathetic
• apathy (n.) [a-, “not” + path, “feeling” + -y] – lack of passion, emotion, or interest
  Over 30% of Americans say they will not vote in the next election due to their apathy about politics.
  Adjective form: apathetic
• empathy (n.) [em-, “in” + path, “suffering” + -y] – intellectually understanding another’s feelings
  Politicians often work very hard at showing empathy for the worries of middle class voters.
  Adjective form: empathetic
  Note: While similar in meaning to sympathy, empathy is not the same; sympathy requires you to share the feelings of another, while empathy requires you only to understand them.
• impassive (adj.) [im-, “” + passi, “feeling” + -ive] – without emotion; calm; unable to feel or suffer
  It was impossible to remain impassive when hearing the hurricane survivor’s harrowing story.
  Noun form: impassivity
  Note: Do not confuse impassive with impassioned (note the ending), which means exactly the opposite!
• pathos (n.) [pathos, “suffering”] – pity or compassion; the quality of a work (of art, literature, etc.) that creates a feeling of pity or compassion in othersThe young author’s ability to communicate pathos for victims on both sides of the war is impressive.

October 11, 2008

Root
NOC, NOX, NUIS, NIC – harm

This root, from the Latin nocere (“to harm, to kill”), gives us at least one very common word: innocent, which means, literally “causing no harm”.  As a side note, innocent is a formation of the archaic word nocent, which as you might guess, means “causing harm”.  Though the original word has all but disappeared from use, many of us use innocent regularly. 

Watch out for words derived from a very similar-looking root: NOCT, NOX, which is from the Latin for “night”, and gives us such words as nocturnal and equinox.

• innocuous (adj.) [in-, “not” + -noc, “harm” + -ous] – harmless
  Some bacteria cause debilitating diseases, but the vast majority are innocuous to humans.
  Noun form: innocuousness
• noxious (adj.) [nox-, “harm” + -ous] – harmful; injurious; corrupting
  Mustard gas and other noxious substances were used in World War I to poison opposing armies.
  Noun form: noxiousness
• nuisance (n.) [nuis-, “harm” (Fr.) + -ance] – an annoying or bothersome thing
  Influenza, or the flu, is mostly just a nuisance today, but its epidemics once killed millions at a time.
• obnoxious (adj.) [ob-, “to” + -nox, “harm” + -ous] – annoying, objectionable, offensive
  My brother’s tendency to interrupt me while I am doing my homework is quite obnoxious.
  Noun form: obnoxiousness
• pernicious (adj.) [per-, “through” + -nic, “to harm, kill” + -ous] – causing harm or ruin; fatal
  Malaria is a widespread and pernicious force in many areas of Africa that lack decent medical care.
  Noun form: perniciousness

October 6, 2008

Root
BEN(E), BON – good

The last two weeks, we dealt with the root male, meaning “evil”; this week, we will learn about its antonym, bene, which is Latin for “good”.  Interestingly, there are not nearly as many words that derive from this root as there are from male.  Apparently, English has a much greater need for “bad” words than for “good” words.  A couple common words that come from bene include benefit (“good result”) and beneficiary (“one who receives a good result”).

In other Romance languages, such as Spanish and French, bene has become bon.  Thus, we get the word bonus, meaning an extra (good) reward.  Two French phrases have also become relatively common in English: bonbon (a type of candy; literally, “good good”) and bon mot (a witty or clever saying; literally, a “good motto”).

• benediction (n.) [bene-, “good” + dict, “to speak”] – the speaking of good wishes; a religious blessing
  At the end of every meeting, we heard Joe’s benediction: “Work smart, everyone!”
  Adjective form: benedictory – spoken with good wishes
  
• benefactor (n.) [bene-, “good” + factor, “maker, doer”] – one who gives time or money; a sponsor or patron
  In Dickens’ Great Expectations, a mysterious benefactor helps Pip to advance in London society.
  
• beneficent (adj.) [bene-, “good” + -fic, “making, causing” + -ent] – causing good
  Helping Janine to find her lost dog was one of Tom’s few truly beneficent acts.
  Noun form: beneficence
  
• benevolent (adj.) [bene-, “good” + vol, “wish, will” + -ent] – wishing others well; with good intent
  Though Jim’s jokes sometimes offended his co-workers, his goal in telling them was benevolent—to make others laugh.
  Noun form: benevolence
• benign (adj.) [ben[i]-, “good” + -g[e]nus, “to give birth to”] – good; harmless
  Lynn was relieved to discover that the tumor was benign, and that she would not need chemotherapy.
• bonanza (n.) [bon-, “good” + [mal]acia, “calm sea” (Sp.)] – a source of great and sudden wealth or luck
  When Jed Clampett found oil on his property, it turned out to be a bonanza for his whole family.

September 29, 2008

Root
MAL, MALE – bad, evil

This root comes from Latin, but is used in all of the romance languages, including French and Spanish.  It is often used as a prefix, and nearly always comes at the beginning of a word.  If you see this root at the beginning of a word, followed by a root whose meaning you know, figuring out the meaning of the whole word is easy—just add “bad” to the meaning of the other root!

Here are a few common words that use mal as a prefix: malfunction (“bad” function), malnutrition (lack of nutrition), malodorous (smelling bad), maltreat (treat badly), and maladjusted (poorly adjusted).

• malefactor (n.) [mal-, “bad” + factor, “maker, doer”] – a criminal or other evil-doer
  Though his henchmen commit numerous crimes, The Joker is the worst malefactor of Gotham City.
  
• maleficent (adj.) [mal-, “bad” + -fic, “making, causing” + -ent] – causing evil or harm
  The Penguin’s maleficent plans did not become clear until after he was nearly elected mayor.
  Noun form: maleficence
• malevolent (adj.) [mal-, “bad” + vol, “wish, will” + -ent] – wishing evil or harm on another
  Though Bruce’s intentions are not malevolent, his actions often cause chaos and destruction.
  Noun form: malevolence
• malfeasance (n.) [mal-, “bad” + faisance, “activity” (Fr.)] – wrongdoing, especially when violating a public trust
  The District Attorney was arrested for blatant malfeasance after he was found to have taken $100,000 in bribes from criminals.
• malicious (adj.) [mal-, “evil” + -ice, “intent” + -ous] – desiring to cause injury, harm, or suffering
  Catwoman may be malicious toward most humans, but she does possess a soft spot for stray kittens.
  Verb form: malice
• malign (v.) [mal[i]-, “bad” + -g[e]nus, “to give birth to”] – to spread harmful lies about
  The jealous would-be superhero spread vicious rumors about Batman in an attempt to malign his reputation.
  Adjective form: malignant (also sometimes malign) – harmful, evil
  Note: The verb form is pronounced “muh-LINE”, while the adjective form is pronounced “muh-LIG-nunt”.
• malinger (v.) [mal-, “bad”+ [h]eingre, “rough-looking” (Fr.)] – to pretend to be ill in an attempt to avoid work or other duties
  When half of my co-workers called in sick on the day after the holiday, I suspected that many of them were malingering.
  Noun form: malingerer – one who malingers

September 22, 2008

Root
MAL, MALE – bad, evil

This root comes from Latin, but is used in all of the romance languages, including French and Spanish.  It is often used as a prefix, and nearly always comes at the beginning of a word.  If you see this root at the beginning of a word, followed by a root whose meaning you know, figuring out the meaning of the whole word is easy—just add “bad” to the meaning of the other root!

Here are a few common words that use mal as a prefix: malfunction (“bad” function), malnutrition (lack of nutrition), malodorous (smelling bad), maltreat (treat badly), and maladjusted (poorly adjusted).

• malady (n.) [mal-, “bad” + [habitus], “condition”] – a chronic disorder or disease of the mind or body
  During the Civil War, nearly as many soldiers died from maladies such as typhoid as died in battle.
  
• maladroit (adj.) [mal-, “bad” + adroit, “skillful” (Fr.)] – unskillful or awkward
  Governor Chase’s maladroit attempts to become President were, not surprisingly, unsuccessful.
  
• malaise (n.) [mal-, “bad” + aise, “ease” (Fr.)] – a state of physical or mental weakness or discomfort
  After experiencing several political setbacks, Lincoln’s mind became mired in malaise.
  
• malapropism (n.) [mal-, “bad” + apropos, “relevant” (Fr.)] – the act of misusing or confusing words in a ridiculous manner; one example of such misuse:
  His letter contained the hilarious malapropism, “Other candidates may retort to personal attacks.”
  Adjective form: malapropos – inappropriate; out of place; untimely
• malcontent (n.) [mal-, “bad”+ content, “happy, satisfied”] – one who is chronically unhappy or unsatisfied
  Despite the successful conclusion of the war, some malcontents argued that the treaty’s terms were too generous.
  Adjective form: malcontent – dissatisfied with current circumstances
• malediction (n.) [male-, “evil” + -dict, “speak”] – a curse; the speaking of a curse; harmful lies
  Upon hearing the speech, the would-be assassin uttered a malediction on the speaker’s life.
  Verb form: maledict – to put a curse on

September 15, 2008

Root: PEND, PENS, POND – to weigh, to hang

Several common words from many different subjects derive from this root (from the Latin pendere).  Perhaps the most common is pound, which is both a unit of weight and the unit of currency in Great Britain.  The currency's name derives from the fact that it was once equal in value to a pound of silver.

One word from this root that I'm sure you've run across in math class is perpendicular.  This word derives from the fact that when a weight is hung from a string, the line of the string makes a 90 degree angle with the ground.

Two other common words from this root are pendant (a necklace with an object that hangs down in front) and pension (an amount of money "weighed out" at regular intervals, usually as a source of retirement income).

• pensive (adj.) [pens-, "to weigh"] – dreamy; lost in thought (as if constantly "weighing" alternatives)
  Due to her pensive mood, Sally said very little during her date with Jemaine.
  Noun form: pensiveness
• ponder (v.) [pond, "to weigh"] – to consider (or weigh) carefully and thoroughly in the mind
  Before he decided to quit the band, Bret pondered the consequences of his decision.
  Adjective form: ponderous
• preponderance (n.) [pre-, "before" + -pond, "to weigh"] – superiority in weight, power, numbers, etc.
  Though Mel claimed to be innocent, the preponderance of evidence suggested that she was guilty.
  Adjective form: preponderant – most common
• propensity (n.) [pro-, "forward"+ pens-, "to weigh"] – a natural tendency to do something
  Dave has a propensity for seeing the positive side of even the bleakest situation.
• recompense (n.) [re-, "back" + com-, "together" + pens, "weigh"] – repayment; reward or compensation
  Murray received little recompense for his work as a band manager, but enjoyed it nonetheless.
  Verb form: recompense – to repay; to reward or pay someone

September 4, 2008

Root: PEND, PENS, POND – to weigh, to hang

This root, from the Latin pendere, is used in several different ways in words.  It can be used literally, such as in the word suspend, which literally means “to hang below.”  It can also be used to refer to a mental state, such as in the related word suspense, which refers to a feeling that something is “weighing” on your mind.  Commonly, it refers to money; think of the words expense (literally, “something weighed out”) and spend (a corrupted form of expend).  This relationship with money derives from the time before standardized currency, when goods were paid for with coins of varying weights.  In order to be sure one was paying or receiving the correct amount, one had to weigh the coins.

Some other common words using this root include dispense (“to weigh out, to distribute”) and depend (literally, “to weigh down”), as well as the many words based on depend: dependent, independent, interdependent, etc.

• append (v.) [ap- [ad-], “to” + -pend, “to hang”] – to attach; to add on to the end as a supplement
  Please append a recommendation letter to the job application.
  Noun form: appendix – an added section at the end of a book, often containing reference material; also, the small portion of the end of the large intestine that once was thought to have no function
  Other noun form: appendage – a limb, such as an arm or a leg
• compensate (v.) [com- [con-], “together” + -pens, “to weigh”] – to pay someone; to offset or counterbalance
  Michelle found that no amount of money could compensate for the loss of her beloved rose bushes.
  Noun form: compensation – payment
• impend (v.) [im- [in-], “in, on” + -pend, “to weigh”] – to be about to happen; to threaten
  As his debts mounted, the possibility of bankruptcy impended on John and his family.
  Adjective form: impending – about to happen
• pending (adj.) [pend-, “to hang”] – awaiting resolution; in progress; about to begin; until
  The pending peace negotiations did not stop the army from strengthening its attack forces.
  Verb form: pend – to be in progress
• pendulous (adj.) [pend- “weigh, hang” + -ulous, “tending to”] – hanging down loosely; (people) undecided
  Every spring, the branches of the apple tree in our back yard are pendulous with the weight of fruit.

August 28, 2008

Root: PLIC, PLY – to fold

Two very common words—antonyms, in fact—use this root.  Simple means, literally, “without folds,” while complicated means, literally, “folded together.”  Thus, if you take a simple task, and make it complicated, what you are really doing is folding it in on itself over and over.

The word supplicate (more on it below), though not very common, has an interesting origin.  It literally means “to bend down,” a reference to the act of kneeling.  There are two common contexts in which one typically would kneel: when praying, and when in the presence of a powerful figure such as a king or queen.  In either case, the act of kneeling is used to convey one’s humbleness in the face of a higher power (usually in order to ask that power for a favor).  Thus, by extension, supplicate came to mean “to beg or pray earnestly for something.”

• implicit (adj.) [im- [in-], “in” + -plic, “to fold”] – implied, rather that directly stated; unquestioning
  The implicit message of the advertisement was that using Fresh deodorant will improve your love life.
• implicate (v.) [im- [in-], “in” + -plic, “to fold”] – to show to be involved (often in a crime); to imply a necessary
  Though the defendant claimed he was innocent, the evidence clearly implicated him.
  Noun form: implication
• replicate (v.) [re-, “again, back” + -plic, “to fold”] – to reproduce, copy, or repeat; to bend or fold back
  No matter how many times he repeated the experiment, Doug could not replicate his initial results.
  Noun form: replica – a copy or reproduction of something, particularly a work of art
  Other noun forms: replication – the act of replicating; replicate – something that is replicated
• supple (adj.) [sup- [sub-],“under” + -plic, “to fold”] – bending easily; flexible;(people) compliant or servile
  The bodies of Olympic-caliber gymnasts must be both powerful and supple.
  Noun form: suppleness
• supplicate (v.) [sup- [sub-],“down” + -plic, “to fold”] – to plead earnestly; to pray humbly for
  Though Patty desperately needed a raise, she was too proud to supplicate herself to her boss.
  Noun forms: supplication – the act of supplicating; supplicant – one what supplicates 

August 21, 2008

Root: PLIC, PLY – to fold

Though this root, from the Latin root plicare, literally means “to fold,” most of the words that derive from it are not literally related to folding (one that does is ply, which literally means “a single sheet or fold”).  Usually, this root is used to provide a sense of involvement or entanglement, as in the word apply, which literally means “fold toward,” but we know to mean “relate to” or “become involved with.” Some other words that come from this root: imply (literally, “to fold in with”), multiply (“to fold many times”), reply (“to fold again”), and duplicate (“to fold a second time”).

Two words to watch out for that seem to come from this root but do not: comply and supply.  Both of these words come from the Latin root plere, meaning “full.”

• accomplice (n.) [ac-, “toward” + com-, “together” + -plic, “to fold”] – a person who aids another in a crime
  Although Tom did not actually participate in the robbery, he acted as an accomplice by driving the getaway car.
• complicit (adj.) [com-, “together” + -plic, “to fold”] – involved with or participating in a crime or bad act
  The police believe that Ray is complicit in his brother’s crimes, so they keep a close eye on his activities.
  Noun form: complicity
• duplicitous (adj.) [du[o]-, “two” + -plic, “to fold”] – acting in two different ways in an attempt to deceive
  Doug duplicitously spread malicious rumors about Alicia even convincing her to be his prom date.
  Noun form: duplicity
• explicable (adj.) [ex-,“out” + -plic, “to fold” + -able] – explainable; clear
  Despite her fears about giving a presentation on particle physics, Natasha found the subject to be quite explicable.
  Verb form: explicate – to make clear; to explain
  Antonym: inexplicable – defying explanation; mysterious
• explicit (adj.) [ex-, “out” + -plic, “to fold”] – clearly expressed; detailed; outspoken or unrepressed
  Martin had a hard time navigating around the strange city without explicit instructions.
  Noun form: explicitness

August 14, 2008

Root: (S)CIS, CID – to cut

This root, from the Latin caedere, gives us the name of everyone’s favorite arts-and-crafts tool, scissors (literally, “cutters”).  Another common word from this root is decide, which literally means “to cut off,” but which now is used to indicate the act of ending a thought process, argument, or competition.

A very common suffix, -CIDE, is related to this root.  This suffix means “to kill,” and is used in many English words, including suicide (the act of killing oneself), homicide (the act of killing a human), and pesticide (the act of killing pests).  Here are a few less-common, but useful, words with this suffix: patricide (killing one’s father), matricide (mother), fratricide (brother), sororicide (sister), regicide (king or queen), and genocide (a race or large group of people).

• decisive (adj.) [de-, “off” + -cis, “to cut”] – (people) showing no hesitation; determined; (things) conclusive, definite; ending an argument or controversy
  The battle of Gettysburg in the Civil War proved to be decisive blow to the Confederate cause.
  Noun form: decisiveness
  Antonym: indecisive – (people) hesitant
• excise (v.) [ex-, “out” + -cis, “to cut”] – to cut out or off
  The surgeon successfully excised the cancerous cells that had been clustered around the patients’ liver.
  Noun form: excision
  Adjective form: excisable
  Related noun: excise – an internal tax on the production of certain products, such as tobacco
• incisive (adj.) [in-, “into” + -cis, “to cut”] – penetrating or cutting; sharp (in tone); clear and direct
  The reporter’s incisive questions about the scandal made the politician uncomfortable.
  Noun form: incisiveness
  Related noun: incision – a cut used to provide access to an underlying layer, as in surgery
• precise (adj.) [pre-,“before” + -cis, “to cut”] – fixed or definite in meaning; exact; distinct (literally, “to cut short”)
  When giving directions to someone unfamiliar with the city, it is important to be precise.
  Noun form: precision – exactness; carefulness; also, preciseness
• rescind (v.) [re-, “back” + -scind [-scis], “to cut”] – to revoke or repeal; to cancel or invalidate a previous decision
  Though a state can create laws that restrict personal freedom, the Supreme Court often rescinds them.
  Noun form: rescission – the act of rescinding

August 11, 2008

Root: CEPT, CEIV, CIP, CAP(T) – to seize, to hold, to grasp

Have you ever heard the Latin saying carpe diem (pronounced CAR-pay DEE-um)? If so, you may know that it means “seize the day.” You may not know, however, that it derives from the same root (capare) as words like captive (“one who is seized”), capture (“to seize”), capacity (“the amount something or someone can hold”), and capable (literally, “able to hold or grasp”; metaphorically, “able to do”). Another common word from this root is intercept, which literally means “to seize between.”

Be careful with this root, though. Several other roots take similar forms in English, including the common root CAP(T), CEP(H), CIP, meaning “head.” This root comes from the Latin cephalus, and some words that derive from it include captain, capital, precipice, cap, cape, capitulate, capsule, capsize, and a whole bunch of anatomical and biological words.

• capacious (adj.) [capaci-, “holding”] – capable of holding a lot; spacious
  Jamie recently bought a capacious storage space to house his many engineering projects.
  Noun form: capaciousness
• captious (adj.) [capt-, “to seize”] – fault-finding or overly critical (literally, “seizing on small mistakes”)
  Fans of the hit TV show watch it devotedly, yet engage in captious criticism of the show on its web site.
  Noun form: captiousness
• contraceptive (n.) [contra-, “against” + [con-] + -cept, “to grasp”] – something that prevents an idea or thing from coming into existence, especially preventing reproduction
  Careful experiment planning acts as a contraceptive against laboratory accidents.
  Related noun form: contraception – the collective name for all types of reproductive contraceptives
  Adjective form: contraceptive
• emancipate (v.) [e[x]-,“out of” + man-, “hand” + -cip, “to seize”] – to set free, especially from slavery
  Lincoln’s desire to emancipate the Southern slaves caused dissension even among his own party.
  Noun form: emancipation
• incapacitate (v.) [in-, “not” + capaci-, “holding”] – to disable or deprive of strength or ability
  Though Superman is invulnerable to most weapons, he is easily incapacitated by Kryptonite.
  Noun form: incapacity – lacking ability, incapacitation – the act of being incapacitated
• municipal (adj.) [muni-, “money, taxes” + -cip, “to seize”] – related to town, city, or local government
  Grant works as a municipal clerk; he handles permits and license applications for the city government.
  Noun form: municipality – a city or town that governs itself

August 4, 2008

Root: CEPT, CEIV, CIP, CAP(T) – to seize, to hold, to grasp

This very common root, from the participle form of the Latin root capere, takes many forms in English. Several of the words from this root relate to ideas that one “grasps,” including concept (“an idea one holds”), deception (“to mislead by false statement or idea”), and perceive (see below).  Several other common words take their meanings fairly directly from the root. If you receive something, you are literally “seizing” it for yourself.  If you participate, you are literally “seizing” a “part” of something for yourself.

Finally, two commonly confused words share this root as well: accept and except.  Remember, accept is a verb meaning “to hold as one’s own; to admit to be true; to receive.”  Except, on the other hand, is a preposition or a conjunction that means “with the exclusion of,” as in the sentence “All of us except John went to the store.”

• anticipate (v.) [anti- [ante-], “before” + -cip, “to hold”] – to foresee; to expect; to prevent
  Alton is a great cook in part because he always anticipates what is needed next in the recipe.
  Noun form: anticipation – a feeling of nervousness or excitement before an important event
  Adjective form: anticipatory
• disciple (n.) [dis-“apart” + -cip, “to hold”] – a follower or student of an idea or leader (literally, “one who holds an idea apart from all others”)
  Famed chef Emeril Lagasse has many disciples in the world of fine cuisine.
  Related noun form: discipline – a field of study; a profession; also, the dedication needed to succeed in such a field
  
• incipient (adj.) [in-“in” + -cip, “to seize”] – beginning; in an early stage
  Deb’s incipient acting skills blossomed when she appeared on several episodes of the TV cooking show.
  Noun form: inception – a beginning; a ceremony marking the beginning of a long process
  
• perceive (v.) [per-, “through” + -ceiv, “to grasp”] – to become aware of; to recognize
  It is strange that no one else perceives the obvious similarity between Superman and Clark Kent.
  Noun form: perception – recognition; insight
  Adjective form: perceptible – able to be seen or recognized
  
• precept (n.) [pre-, “before” + -cept, “to grasp”] – an important idea that acts as a rule guiding conduct
  The Golden Rule is a core precept of all the world’s major religions.
• susceptible (adj.) [sus- [sub-], “under” + -cept, “to grasp” + -able] –  easily influenced or affected
  Natural leather is durable and has a pleasant texture, but is susceptible to water damage.
  Noun form: susceptibility
  

July 28, 2008

Root: TEST – to witness, to swear

From the Latin testis, this root is often used in words related to formal swearing, such as in court.  One prime example of this is the word testify, which means “to bear witness, especially in court.”  Similarly, the word protest, which originally meant “to declare publicly,” has now changed slightly to mean “a declaration of opposition.”  The noun contest is a very common derivative of this root, meaning “a struggle for victory”; if the connection to the root seems unclear now, consider that the noun form came into use after the verb form, which we will go into greater detail on below.

Interestingly, the word test itself is not related to this root.  Test is from the Latin testum, meaning “earthen pot”.  The connection?  An old method of determining the quality of a metal was to melt it in an earthenware pot.  From this sense of “testing” the metal’s quality came the more general meaning that we use today.

• attest (v.) [at-, “toward, to” + -test, “to swear”] – to swear to; to declare to be true or genuine
  Having seen Betty cook on numerous occasions, Don could attest to her culinary skill.
  Noun form: attestation – an oath or declaration of truth
  Other noun form: attester – one who attests
• contest (v.) [con-“together” + -test, “to swear”] – to argue or dispute; to struggle or fight for
  Peggy took every opportunity to contest her co-workers’ claims that women could not write copy.
  Noun forms: contest (see above); contestant – one who competes against others for a prize
  Adjective form: contestable – able to be fought for; winnable
  
• detest (v.) [de-, “against” + -test, “to swear”] – to dislike intensely (literally, to denounce in an oath)
  Although Pete detests his co-workers, he has little choice but to be nice to them.
  Adjective form: detestable – worthy of hatred or disrespect
• testament (n.) [test-, “to witness” + -ment] – strong evidence for something; a formal statement of belief; a will
  That Roger was named class valedictorian is a testament to both his intelligence and his hard work.
• testimony (n.) [test-, “to witness” + -mony] – the statement of a witness made under oath; supporting evidence
  Francine stated in her testimony that she saw Carlton steal the money from the cash register.
  Related noun form: testimonial – a statement of the effectiveness of a product or service
  Adjective form: testimonial

July 21, 2008

Root: TORT, TORS, TORQ – to twist, to turn

This root, from the Latin torqúere, has taken on a variety of implied meanings.  Most commonly, words derived from this root are used to imply some sort of pain.  The most commonly-used word from this root, torture, literally means “to cause great pain through twisting”; while torture refers to physical pain, a related word from this root, torment, refers to mental pain.

You may have seen a couple words with more literal uses of the root if you have studied physics or mechanics.  Torque, in physics, is “a force that causes a twisting or rotating motion”; torsion, meanwhile, is a formal word for “twisting.”

• contort (v.) [con-“together” + -tort, “to twist”] – to twist or bend out of shape
  The circus performer contorted her body into a variety of painful-looking positions.
  Noun form: contortion
• distort (v.) [dis-, “apart, away” + -tort, “to twist”] – to twist out of shape; to give a false meaning to
  Karl distorted Lenny’s arguments by leaving out key points and exaggerating others.
  Noun form: distortion
  Note: While contort is nearly always used to refer to a physical twisting, distort usually refers to a twisting in the way something is seen, heard, or understood.  Thus, if one were to contort a sheet of paper, a picture drawn on that paper would likely be distorted.
• extort (v.) [ex-, “out of” + -tort, “to twist”] – to take (money, information, etc.) by force, threat, or intimidation
  Moe extorted over two million dollars from his employer by threatening to tell the company’s secrets to its rival.
  Noun form: extortion
  Adjective form: extortive
• retort (v.) [re-, “back” + -tort, “to turn”] – to reply sharply; to return an accusation or insult upon its source
  When Apu was teased for being small, he would often retort that “only small minds judge others on their appearances.”
  Noun form: retort – a sharp reply
• tortuous (adj.) [tortu-, “to twist”] – full of twists and turns; circuitous or indirect; devious
  Maggie’s tortuous explanation only served to further convince her parents that she was lying.
  Noun form: tortuousness
• torturous (adj.) [torture, “to cause pain by twisting”] – causing great pain; involving torture or suffering
  Learning to walk again after a spinal injury is a long and torturous process.
  Noun form: torture
  Note: Tortuous and torturous are commonly confused.  Remember to use tortuous to describe things that have many changes in direction, either literally (such as a path) or figuratively (such as an explanation). Torturous, on the other hand, is used to describe pain and suffering, often (but not always) physical in nature.  To remember the difference, keep in mind that torturous has an “r” just like torture does

July 14, 2008

Root: FLUX, FLUCT, FLU – to flow

The Latin root fluere, meaning “to flow,” gives us several common words.  If something influences you, it is “flowing into” you, thus changing the way you feel or act.  Becoming fluent in a language allows the words of that language to “flow easily” when you speak.  Finally, a fluid is, literally, “something that flows”—in other words, something you can pour.  Here are a few tougher vocabulary words using this root:

• affluent (adj.) [af- [ad-], “toward” + -flu, “to flow”] – wealthy (literally, with money “flowing toward” one); abundant; flowing freely
  Though Sid was raised in an affluent household, he generally disdained the importance of money.
  Noun form: affluence
• confluence (n.) [con-“together” + -flu, “to flow”] – a flowing together of two or more things, especially rivers
  Cognitive science as a discipline exists at the confluence of psychology, neurology, and philosophy.
  Adjective form: confluent
• fluctuate (v.) [fluct-, “to flow”] – to change constantly; to vary irregularly; to move back and forth in waves
  Though at times the stock market may seem predictable, in reality it fluctuates with little or no patterns.
  Noun form: fluctuation
• flux (n.) [flux, “to flow”] – continuous change; a flowing
  J.D., whose moods are in a constant state of flux, rarely stays depressed for long.
• mellifluous (adj.) [melli-, “honey” + -flu, “to flow”] – sweet-sounding (literally, “flowing like honey”)
  Carla sang the traditional Puerto Rican lullaby in a mellifluous voice, putting her daughter to sleep.
  Noun form: mellifluousness
• superfluous (adj.) [super-, “over, above” + -flu, “to flow”] – more than necessary; excessive (literally, “overflowing”)
  Turk considers most furniture to be superfluous; he owns only a bed, a small table, and two chairs.
  Noun form: superfluity

July 7, 2008

Root: TRACT, TRAI, TRAY – to pull, to draw

This root comes from the Latin tractus, the past participle of trahere, a verb meaning “to pull or draw.” You may be wondering whether this word relates to certain very common words, like trace, track, and tractor.  In all three cases, the answer is “yes.”  Trace means, literally, “to draw an outline,” and a track is “a line or path drawn on or through something.” 

A tractor is “a machine that pulls another machine or implement,” such as on a farm.  You may have also heard the term tractor-trailer, which is the combination of a big-rig truck and the trailer that it pulls behind it (trail meaning, of course, “to follow”).  In addition, fans of the show Star Trek may be familiar with so-called tractor beams, which, on the show, are laser-like beams that are capable of pulling a ship or other object.

• portray (v.) [por [pro-], “forward, forth” + -tray, “to draw”] – to make a likeness by drawing, painting, etc.; to describe vividly in words; to represent a person dramatically, as on stage or television
  The new autobiography of Jacques Cousteau portrays him as a friendly, dedicated scientist.
  Noun form: portrait (used with the visual arts), portrayal (used with dramatic performances)
• retract (v.) [re-“back” + -tract, “to pull”] – to pull back; to take back something spoken or written
  To quell the public outcry, James retracted his controversial statements about the government.
  Noun form: retraction – a statement designed to take back a previous statement; a pulling back
• tractable (adj.) [tract-, “to pull” + -able, “able”] – docile or easily controlled; easily handled or solved
  Mrs. Marquez was surprised to find the classroom of five-year-olds to be tractable and quiet.
  Noun form: tractability
  Antonym: intractable – unmanageable or unsolvable (as a problem)
  
• traction (n.) [tract, “to pull, to draw”] – influence; the adhesive friction allowing a body to be pulled; the act of drawing or pulling
  Darwin’s ideas about natural selection have gradually gained traction since the late 1800s.
  
• tract (n.) [tract, “to draw”] – an area of land or space; a period of time; a portion of the Bible (“a drawn out amount of something”)
  Every morning, Patrick surveyed his small tract of farmland before beginning his work in the fields.
  
• trait (n.) [trait, “to draw”] – a distinguishing characteristic (literally, “something drawn”)
  While some traits, like eye color, are passed on genetically, others, like hair color, are influenced by diet and environmental conditions as well.

Note: The words betray and traitor may seem to fit this root, but they actually come from the Latin root tradere, meaning “to betray.”

June 30, 2008

Root: TRACT – to pull, to draw

This root comes from the Latin tractus, the past participle of trahere, a verb meaning “to pull or draw.” It is easy to see how most of the words from this root relate to the root’s meaning. For instance, if you have ever been attracted to someone, surely you have felt as if that person was “pulling” you toward them. Similarly, if you are continually distracted in math class, you probably often feel as if your attention is being “pulled” or “drawn” away from the teacher. Speaking of math, every time you subtract a number, what are you doing? Why, you’re “pulling” a part of that number away. Many of the words in this lesson are fairly easy to reconstruct as well, provided that you know the meanings of the prefixes (which I hope you do!).

Pronunciation note: For the words that have two forms with the same spelling (a verb or adjective form and a noun form), place the stress on the first syllable if it is a noun (i.e., “AB-stract”) and on the last syllable if it is not a noun (i.e., “ab-STRACT”).

• abstract (adj.) [ab[s]-, “away” + -tract, “to pull”] – theoretical or metaphorical; not related to a specific instance
  Alan’s paper ignores all practical applications of his theory, dealing only with its abstract implications.
  Verb form: abstract – to remove or separate; to summarize
  Noun forms: abstractness – lack of concreteness; abstraction – process of abstracting; abstract idea
  Related noun form: abstract – a summary of major points
• contract (v.) [con-, “together” + -tract, “to pull”] – to limit or reduce in size; to become affected with; to make a contract
  The newspaper was forced to contract its international coverage due to budget cuts.
  Adjective form: contractible – able to be reduced; able to be spread from person to person (as a disease)
  Noun form: contraction – the shortening of a muscle; the shortening of a word (as in “can’t’)
  Related noun form: contract – a binding agreement between people or groups
• detract (v.) [de-, “down” + -tract, “to pull”] – to diminish in importance or value (used with “from”)
  No matter how good your ideas are, grammar errors always detract from the effectiveness of your argument.
  Noun form: detraction – deminishment
  Related noun form: detractor – one who diminishes a person or idea; opponent
• extract (v.) [ex-, “out of” + -tract, “to pull”] – to draw or pull out by force; to select or separate something of value from something of little value
  I was quite afraid of the procedure, but the surgeon extracted my wisdom teeth quickly and painlessly.
  Noun form: extraction – something that is extracted; the process of extracting; origin
  Related noun form: extract – a product prepared by extraction; a selection from a longer work
• protract (v.) [pro-, “toward” + -tract, “to pull”] – to prolong in time or space; to extend outward
  I felt no need to protract the awkwardness of the moment, so I changed the subject.
  Adjective forms: protracted – stretched out in time; delayed
  Noun form: protraction – the act of protracting
  Related noun form: protractor – an instrument for drawing and measuring angles in geometry

June 23, 2008

Root: GREG – flock, herd (in other words, a group)

One of the most common occupations in ancient times was that of a herder, a person whose job was to keep a large group of farm animals (such as sheep, cows, or goats) together.

The Latin root that was used for words related to this job was greg. Herding is no longer as common in the modern world, but several words that come from this root are still used.

• aggregate (adj.) [ad-, “toward” + -greg, “group”] – formed by a collection of parts into a whole
  This year’s aggregate sales from the three stores were more than double last year’s.
  Noun form: aggregate or aggregation
  Verb form: aggregate
  Note: The adjective and noun forms of this word are pronounced “AG-ruh-git” but the verb form is pronounced “AG-ruh-gate.”
• congregate (v.) [con-, “together” + -greg, “group”] – to collect into a group or crowd
  Thousands of people congregated outside the concert hall before the performance, waiting to be let in.
  Noun form: congregation
• egregious (adj.) [e[x]-, “out of” + -greg, “group”] – obviously or flagrantly bad (so bad that it stands out from the group)
  Paula’s grammar errors were so egregious that her teacher made her completely re-write her essay.
  Noun form: egregiousness
• gregarious (adj.) [gregarius, “a group”] – social; friendly
  Franz’s gregarious nature made him particularly well-suited to being a tour guide.
  Noun form: gregariousness
• segregate (v.) [se-, “apart” + -greg, “group”] – to separate or isolate a group from the whole; to withdraw
  Although doctors attempted to segregate the sick patients, the disease continued to spread throughout the hospital.
  Noun form: segregation

June 16, 2008

Root: FER – to carry, to bring

In addition to the words we covered last week, two other everyday terms come from the Latin ferre: ferry and circumference. If you have ever had to travel to a location that is separated from the land around it by a body of water, and which doesn’t have a bridge or other road traveling to it, you have probably ridden a ferry (“a boat that carries things and people back and forth across a body of water”).

Circumference comes from the prefix circum, meaning (as you may have guessed) “circle, around.” It is used in math to refer to the distance around the edge of a circle. Think of it as the distance you must “carry” your pencil if you were to trace it around the circle.

• odoriferous (adj.) [odor-, “smell” + -fer, “to carry”] – yielding a strong, often unpleasant, smell; morally offensive
  The odoriferous sample of fungus prompted me to put on a mask before beginning the experiment.
  Noun form: odoriferousness
• proliferate (v.) [prol[es]-, “a lot” + -fer, “to carry”] – to grow or reproduce quickly and freely
  Without any natural predators, the deer in this forest proliferate to the point of overpopulation.
  Noun form: proliferation
  Adjective form: proliferative (rare)
• proffer (v.) [pro-, “forward” + -fer, “to carry”] – to present or offer up for acceptance
  I refused to proffer my hand in marriage to such a rude, uncivilized man.
  Noun form: proffer
• refer (v.) [re-, “back” + -fer, “to carry”] – to direct attention to; to relate to; to look at briefly; to direct to
  Though my paper often refers to Ayn Rand’s novels, I do not agree with her point of view.
  Noun form: reference – something that refers a reader to another source
  Alternate noun form: referral – the act of referring (as of a patient to another doctor)
  Related noun form: referendum – a binding popular vote used in place of the traditional legislative process (i.e., when the legislature “refers” a matter directly to the people)
• vociferous (adj.) [voc-, “to call” + -fer, “to carry”] – crying out loudly and passionately
  When she was younger, my daughter Annie often vociferously refused to take a bath.
  Noun form: vociferousness
  Verb form: vociferate

June 9, 2008

Root: FER – to carry, to bring

From the Latin ferre, this root is used in the following common words: different (literally, “carried apart from”), offer (“to carry toward”), prefer (“to carry before”), transfer (“to carry across”), and suffer (“to be carried under”). A beneficial exercise would be to relate these literal definitions to the dictionary definitions that you are more familiar with. Can you see how the literal meaning from the roots became today’s meaning?

• confer (v.) [con-, “together” + -fer, “to carry”] – to ask advice from or compare views with; to bestow upon
  I wanted a second opinion about my surgery, so I conferred with my neighbor’s doctor.
  Noun form: conference
• defer (v.) [de- , “away from” + -fer, “to carry”] – to allow another to take the lead; to give way
  Since you have studied this subject for 10 years and I am just beginning, I defer to your wisdom.
  Noun form: deference
  Adjective form: deferential
• fertile (adj.) [fer[t]-, “to carry” + -tile, “tending to”] – productive, especially with plant or animal reproduction
  Thomas Edison had a fertile mind for invention, receiving over 1,000 distinct patents.
  Noun form: fertility
• indifferent (adl.) [in-, “not” + dif- [dis-], “apart from” + -fer, “to carry”] – marked by no special like or dislike for something; impartial; mediocre
  Though Brian and Mark each have strong feelings on the matter, I am indifferent.
  Noun form: indifference
• infer (v.) [in-, “into” + -fer, “to carry”] – to conclude; to guess
  While I am by no means certain, I can infer from the rising temperatures that spring will soon arrive.
  Noun form: inference
  Note: Do not confuse this word with imply, which means “to express indirectly;” if someone implies that they are unhappy, you can infer their unhappiness from the unstated meaning of their words.

June 2, 2008

Root: TAIN, TEN, TIN – to hold

Another common word using this root (from the Latin tenere) is tenant, which literally means “one who holds;” today, tenant refers to a person who lives in or on another person’s property (usually paying money to the owner in return). A tenant, then, is one who holds property for another. A related word is tenement, which refers to a large complex of apartments that are rented out (and thus are “held” by someone other than the owner). Though this word was originally neutral in connotation, it has taken on a negative sense, implying extreme poverty and deplorable conditions.

Note: Two common vocabulary words, tenuous and attenuate, come not from tenere, but rather from the related root tenuis, which means “thin.” Hence, tenuous means “flimsy, weak, or unsupported,” and attenuate means “to make thinner or weaker.”

• retain (v.) [re-, “back” + -tain, “to hold”] – to keep in possession; to employ; to keep intact
  Though the translation contained no errors, it did not retain the playful spirit of the original.
  Noun form: retainer – a servant or employee; a device that holds something in place
  Related noun: retinue – a group of attendants (such as bridesmaids at a wedding)
• sustain (v.) [sus- [sub-], “up” + -tain, “to hold”] – to support; to nourish; to suffer
  Patrick led the first half of the race, but he could not sustain that pace and eventually finished third.
  Noun form: sustenance – nourishment (often food)
• tenable (adj.) [ten-, “to hold” + -able, “able”] – capable of being held, maintained, or defended
  In order for the treaty to be tenable, both countries must withdraw their armies.
  Antonym: untenable
• tenacious (v.) [tenac-, “to hold strongly”] – persistent; not easily separated
  With a tenacious will, Samwise overcame many perils and completed his journey.
  Noun form: tenacity
• tenet (n.) [ten-, “to hold”] – a principle or belief that is generally held to be true
  One of the central tenets of the Progressive movement is that every adult citizen has the right to vote.
• tenor (n.) [ten-, “to hold”] – the general direction of an written work, argument, or discussion
  The tenor of Kuhn’s essay was clearly influenced by the theories of C.P. Snow.
  Note: tenor also refers to the highest adult male singing voice, and a person having such a voice (The opera singer sang in a resounding tenor .)

May 26, 2008

Root: TAIN, TEN, TIN – to hold

This root, from the Latin tenere, occurs in several common words, including contain (“to hold”), maintain (“to attempt to hold in the original state”), and tenant (“one who holds land, etc. for another”).

Note: Though it seems to come from this root, the word attain (“to achieve”) actually comes from the combination of the prefix ad- (“toward”) and the root tangere (“to touch”). Luckily, though, tangere and tenere are related (holding being very similar to touching), and so a definition using tenere would not be far off.

• appertain (v.) [ap- [ad-], “to” + per-, “through” + -tain, “to hold”] – to belong (to)
  Though the fossils we found seemed diverse, they actually appertain to the same genus of trilobite.
• abstain (v.) [abs-, “away” + -tain, “to hold”] – to deliberately avoid or deny oneself something
  After discovering that he had diabetes, Chuck decided to abstain from eating sweets.
  Adjective form: abstinent – deliberately avoiding something (often sexual activity)
  Noun form: abstinence
• detain (v.) [de-, “away” + -tain, “to hold”] – to hold or keep back
  Though Moira was detained by police for questioning, she was never actually charged with a crime.
  Noun forms: detainee – one who is detained; detainment – the act of being detained
• obtain (v.) [ob-, “up against” + -tain, “to hold”] – to acquire or gain through a planned action
  In order to complete my coin collection, I had to obtain a 1974 half-dollar.
• pertinent (adj.) [per-, “through” + -tain, “to hold”] – relevant; on-topic
  Though his comments were not pertinent to our discussion, they were an interesting digression.
  Noun form: pertinence
  Adjective form: pertain – to be related (to); to belong (to); to refer (to)
  Antonym form: impertinent – irrelevant (applied to things or ideas); rude or improper (applied to people)
  William behaved in an impertinent manner, refusing to take off his shoes and then belching loudly.

May 19, 2008

Root: CED, CESS – to go; to yield

While I’m sure you will recognize many common words using this root (process, success, access, necessary, and excess, to name a few), there are a few others that you may not recognize at first. That is because the Latin root cedere, like many roots, is not always spelled consistently in English words. For instance, the English word cease (“to stop, to give in”) is derived from this root, as is deceased (“gone,” used as a euphemism for “dead”).

Note: The English word supersede (meaning “to replace”) is sometimes spelled supercede. It does not, however, come from this root; rather, it is derived from the Latin sedere, meaning “to sit.” (Supersede literally means “to sit on top of.”) Interestingly, even if you did use cedere instead of sedere, you’d still get a definition that is fairly close to the real one: “to go above.”

• abscess (n.) [abs- [ab-], “away” + -cess, “to go”] – a place where pus collects around inflamed tissue; a place where undesired elements gather
  The run-down house was an abscess in the neighborhood, attracting a variety of vagrants and criminals.
  Adjective form: abscessed
• incessant (adj.) [in-, “not” + -cess, “to yield”] – uninterrupted; continuing to the point of annoyance
  Marcia’s incessant questions so frustrated her teacher that he had to send her out of the room.
• predecessor (n.) [pre-, “before” + de-, “remove” + -cess, “to go”] – one who came before (and is now gone)
  James’ predecessor as mayor ran the city so smoothly that James rarely had any problems to solve.
  Related verb forms: precede, decease
  Synonym: ancestor [from an[te]-, “before” + -ces “to go”]
  Antonym: successor
• recede (v.) [re-, “back” + -ced, “to go”] – to move back or away; to grow less or smaller
  As the flood waters receded, residents were finally allowed into their homes to inspect the damage.
  Adjective form: receding
  Noun form: recession – withdrawal; a prolonged economic downturn
• secede (v.) [se[d]-, “without” + -ced, “to go”] – to withdraw from an organization
  Although Kentucky never seceded from the U.S. during the Civil War, slavery remained legal there.
  Noun form: seccession

May 12, 2008

Root: CED, CESS – to go; to yield

This root, from the Latin cedere, appears in numerous English words.  It is a very instructive root, because it can be combined with nearly all of the common Latin prefixes to form English words.  Here are a few common examples: exceed (“to go out of or beyond”), proceed (“to go forward”), succeed (“to go near; to follow”).

Note:  Oddly, these three words (exceed, proceed, and succeed) are the only three words in the English language that end “-eed”.  All other words derived from this root, such as the ones given below, end “-ede.”

• accede (v.) [ac- [ad-], “toward” + -ced, “to yield”] – to give in to; to express approval toward
  After Tommy begged me to give him a ride to the concert, I finally acceded.
  Noun form: accession – addition; the act of agreement; the act of joining
• cede (v.) [ced-, “to yield”] – to yield or give up; to transfer
  Mexico ceded what is now the Southwestern U.S. to America in 1848.
  Noun form: cession
• concede (v.) [con-, “with” + -ced, “to yield”] – to grant as a right or privilege; to accept as true (often grudgingly)
  Though I concede that Shakespeare’s plays are masterful, I prefer his sonnets.
  Noun form: concession
• intercede (v.) [inter-, “between” + -ced, “to go”] – to intervene in an attempt to resolve differences; to mediate
  If the feud between the two baseball players does not end soon, their coach will have to intercede.
  Noun form: intercession – the act of interceding; prayer or petition in favor of another
• precede (n.) [pre-, “before” + -ced, “to go”] – to come before, ahead, or in front of; to surpass
  George H.W. Bush preceded Bill Clinton as president; his son, George W. Bush, succeeded Clinton.
  Noun form: precedent – an earlier occurrence of something similar
  Adjective form: preceding
  Noun form: precedent – an earlier occurrence of something similar
  Synonym: antecede (ante-, like pre-, means “before” in Latin)
  Antonym: succeed (the original meaning: “to come near or after”)
  
  

May 5, 2008

Root: CRED – to believe, to trust

From the Latin credere, this root gives us the word credit, and all of its many meanings. Perhaps the most common modern meaning of credit relates to the loaning of money, as with credit cards. Every time you use a credit card, the issuer of the card is essentially loaning you money, and trusting that you will repay the loan (with interest, of course). As you will see below, the word incredible also comes from this root, though its original meaning is different from the idiomatic meaning that we usually use (namely, “great”).

Note: Be very careful not to mix up the words credible and credulous (or their antonyms), as they have very different meanings (see below).

• accredit (v.) [ac- [ab-], “toward” + cred-, “to believe”] – to attribute to; to certify; to believe
  The maxim “A penny saved is a penny earned” is accredited to Benjamin Franklin.
  Noun form: accreditation – certification; proof of trustworthiness
  Adjective form: accredited
  Antonym: discredit – to prove to be false or untrustworthy
• credence (n.) [cred, “to believe”] – truthfulness; evidence
  The ticket stub gave credence to Artie’s story that he was at the movie at the time of the break-in.
  Related noun: credentials or credential – evidence of authority or status; basis for belief
• credible (adj.) [cred-, “to believe” + -[able], “able”] – believable, trustworthy
  Mary found some information on the internet, but did not find it credible enough to cite in her paper.
  Noun form: credibility
  Antonym: incredible – (literally) unbelievable
• credulous (adj.) [cred-, “to believe”] – believing or trusting too readily; gullible
  Armando is so credulous that he believed my story about being abducted by tiny purple aliens.
  Noun form: credulity
  Antonym: incredulous – disbelieving
• creed (n.) [cred-, “to believe”] – a system of opinion or belief; a formal statement expressing a belief
  The Olympic creed emphasizes the importance of effort rather than victory.
  Synonym: credo

April 28, 2008

Root: MIT, MIS – to send

Many common words come from this root, from the Latin mittere. Among the words that are clearly defined using this root: admit (“to send in”), dismiss (“to send away”), submit (“to send to or under; to yield”), and transmit (“to send through”). This root also appears in commit, missile, mission, permit, and promise, among other words.

Note: the common vocabulary word mitigate does NOT use this root; its root is mitis, meaning “soft”; hence, mitigate means “to soften; to lessen the impact of.”

• emit (v.) [e[x]-, “out of” + -mit, “to send”] – to send out
  The scientists found that the substance only emitted radiation when heated.
  Noun form: emission
  Personal noun form: emissary – a representative sent from one group to another
  Adjective form: emissive
• intermittent (adj.) [inter-, “between” + -mit, “to send”] – occasional; not continuous
  The intermittent sounds from the train tracks outside awoke me several times last night.
• omit (v.) [o[b]-, “toward” + -mit, “to send”] – to leave out
  The principal apologized for accidentally omitting Susan’s name from the honor roll.
  Noun form: omission
• remiss (adj.) [re-, “back” + -mis, “to send”] – failing to perform a duty; neglectful
  Adam was remiss in watering his plants; as a result, they became dry and brittle.
  Verb form: remit – to send as payment; to slacken; to release; to forgive
  Noun form: remission – a weakened or less damaging state (as with cancer)
  Antonym: unremitting – constant; never weakening or stopping
• surmise (v.) [su[pe]r-, “above” + -mis, “to send”] – to guess, to theorize
  Einstein correctly surmised that energy and mass were related.
  Noun form: surmise – a guess

April 21, 2008

Root: LUD, LUS – to play

Though this root, from the Latin ludere, means “to play,” its words are rarely used in a playful manner. Perhaps this is because a secondary meaning of ludere is “to mock.” The most common word using this root is illusion, meaning “deception” or “a misleading image.” Illusionists, literally, make their living by mocking your vision. Another common word has a similar meaning: delusion (“a false belief”).

Note: Do not confuse this root with the Latin claudere, meaning “closed,” which often appears in words as clud or clus (such as include, conclude, and cluster). Watch for that leading “c” and you’ll be able to tell the difference easily.

• allusion (n.) [al- [ad-], “toward” + lus-, “to play”] – an indirect reference (usually to a work of literature)
  When she refers to her main characters as “star-cross’d lovers,” Moira is making an allusion to Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet.
  Verb form: allude
  Adjective form: allusive
• collude (v.) [col- [con-], “with” + lud-, “to play”] – to collaboratively plan (usually with evil intent)
  Sam suspects that the oil companies have colluded to raise gas prices so as to make more profit.
  Noun form: collusion
  Adjective form: collusive
• elude (v.) [e[x]-, “out of” + lud-, “to play”] – to avoid skillfully; to escape one’s understanding
  The ability to elude potential tacklers is crucial to any quarterback who hopes to succeed in football.
  Adjective form: elusive
• interlude (n.) [inter-, “between” + lud-, “to play”] – an event or period that comes between or interrupts
  My lunch hour is a welcome interlude from the daily stresses of my job.
• ludicrous (adj.) [lud-, “to play”] – laughably ill-fitting; absurdly foolish or false
  The pink and green polka-dotted tie served as a fittingly ludicrous accent to the clown’s outfit.
  Noun form: ludicrousness

Special bonus word!

• prelude (n.) [pre-, “before” + lud-, “to play”] – an introductory event, action, or performance
  As exciting as the scene was, it was but a prelude to the breathtaking action sequences that followed.

April 14, 2008

Root: PLAC – calm; pleasing

Though this root, from the Latin placere, may seem to be the root for the word place, it is in fact only secondarily related. The root for place is actually platea, meaning “flat”—place’s original meaning is simply “a flat area.” The two roots are cousins, however; platea ultimately comes from the same root as placere. You can probably imagine how a word meaning “calm” could eventually come to mean “flat”—just picture a calm ocean, and think of how flat the water would be.

One common word that does come from placere is please (and all its variants). Though it is spelled differently from the root, their meanings are obviously the same.

• complacent (adj.) [com- [con-], “together” + plac-, “pleasing”] – pleased with one’s situation, often while ignoring potential problems or dangers
  Despite his low-paying job and mounting debts, Barry complacently refused to ask for a promotion.
  Noun form: complacency
• implacable (adj.) [im- [in-], “not” + plac-, “calm”] – not able to be pleased or calmed; unstoppable
  The storm’s implacable advance was a frightening example of nature’s power.
  Noun form: implacability
• placate (v.) [plac-, “calm”] – to calm down; to appease
  Andrea placated her baby by offering it a bottle.
  Noun form: placation
  Adjective form: placating
• placebo (n.) [plac-, “pleasing”] – a substance used in place of a medicine so as to please a patient (who thinks it to be medicine)
  The doctor found that giving patients a placebo was nearly as effective at curing headaches as giving them actual pain-relievers.
  
• placid (adj.) [plac-, “calm”] – calm, peaceful; quiet; undisturbed
  The placid waters of the pond were momentarily disturbed by the duck’s landing.
  Noun form: placidity

April 7, 2008

Root: GRAD, GRESS – step, stage, degree

From the Latin gradus, this root is often used to indicate progress (or the lack thereof).  In fact, the word progress itself comes from this root (meaning “to step forward”).  Other common words using this root include: graduate (“to step to the next level”), grade (“stage, level”), aggressive (“moving toward”), congress (“stepping together”), and gradual (“step by step”).

• degrade (v.) [de-, “lower” + grad-, “step”] – to lower in dignity; to reduce; to weaken
  Despite his financial troubles, Franz would not degrade himself by taking a job as a janitor.
  Noun form: degradation
  Adjective form: degrading
• digress (v.) [di-, “twice” + -gress, “step”] – to wander off the main topic when speaking or writing
  Though her argument was sound, Sheila’s tendency to digress weakened the impact of her essay.
  Noun form: digression
  Adjective form: digressive
• egress (n.) [e[x]-, “out of” + -gress, “step”] – the act of leaving; an exit; an escape
  Our egress from the crowded stadium was surprisingly quick and easy.
  Verb form: egress – to go out; to emerge
• regress (v.) [re-, “back” + -gress, “step”] – to go backward; to revert to a less advanced form
  William found that his chess skills regressed when he did not practice consistently.
  Noun form: regression
  Adjective form: regressive – tending to go backward; (taxes) affecting the poor more than the rich
• transgress (v.) [trans-, “beyond” + -gress, “step”] – to violate a law or moral code; to sin; to go beyond a limit
  Mona transgressed when she neglected to remove her shoes before entering Amit’s house.
  Noun form: transgression

March 31, 2008

Root: FID – faith, trust

From the Latin fidare, this root is often used with words that involve swearing and oath-taking. Among the common words that use this root are confident (“having faith in oneself”) and fiancé (“a person whom you have sworn to be faithful to”). This root is also used in the official motto of the marines, Semper fidelis (often abbreviated as “Semper Fi”), which is the Latin for “always faithful,” as well as the phrase bona fide, which means “good and true, legitimate.” The dog name Fido, literally meaning “faithful,” also uses this root.

• affidavit (n.) [af- [ad-], “toward” + fid-, “faith”] – a written declaration made under oath
  Chelsea swore in her affidavit that she did not see the defendant on the night in question.
• confide (v.) [con-, “together, with” + fid-, “faith”] – to tell someone a secret
  Barry confided to me that he had finished writing his essay only an hour before class.
  Adjective form: confidential
  Noun form: confidant – a person whom one trusts with a secret
  Related nouns: confederacy – an alliance for a common purpose, often with unlawful intent; confederate – a member of such an alliance
• diffident (adj.) [dif- [dis-], “without” + fid-, “faith”] – lacking faith in one’s abilities
  Despite her friends’ encouragement, Martha remained diffident about her writing skills.
  Noun form: diffidence
• infidelity (n.) [in-, “not” + fid-, “faith”] – disloyalty, often to one’s spouse
  Martin received very little in the divorce settlement due to his extensive infidelity.
  Other noun form: infidel – a disbeliever, often in a particular religious faith
  Antonym: fidelity – faithfulness, loyalty; accuracy (especially with sound or video recordings)
• perfidy (n.) [per-, “beyond” + fid-, “faith”] – betrayal of trust; treachery
  Benedict Arnold’s treasonous actions during the Revolution made his name synonymous with perfidy.
  Adjective form: perfidious

March 24, 2008

Root: VOC, VOK – to call
Whereas last week we dealt with the Latin root meaning “to speak,” this week we are dealing with the Latin root meaning “to call,” vocare, which is related to the Latin root meaning “voice,” vox. Some comman words using this root include vocal (“calling”), provoke (“to call forth feelings; to arouse”), and revoke (“to call back”). The word provocative, a cousin of provoke, is also fairly common; it means “causing an emotional reaction; stimulating.”

• advocate (v.) [ad-, “toward” + voc-, “to call”] – to speak or write in favor of; to publicly support
  Due to your uncertain financial situation, I cannot advocate that you buy a new car.
  Noun form: advocacy – being in favor of something; advocate – supporter
  Note: The last syllable of the verb form is pronounced like “Kate,” but the last syllable of the noun form is pronounced like “kit.”
• convoke (v.) [con-, “together, with” + vok-, “to call”] – to call together; to summon for a meeting
  The club president will convoke the meeting ten minutes after the final school bell sounds.
  Noun form: convocation – a call to assemble; a formal assembly
• equivocal (adj.) [equi-, “equal” + voc-, “to call”] – deliberately ambiguous; refusing to take a position
  The politician frustrated reporters with his equivocal responses to their seemingly simple questions.
  Verb form: equivocate
  Noun form: equivocation – the act of being equivocal, equivocalness – being equivocal (as a trait)
  Antonym: unequivocal – impossible to misinterpret; of clear intent
• evocative (adj.) [e[x]-, “out of” + voc-, “to call”] – calling forth or producing emotion
  I found the poem to be highly evocative of the trials and tribulations of adolescence.
  Verb form: evoke
  Noun form: evocation
• vociferous (adj.) [voc-, “to call” + fer-, “to carry”] – crying out noisily
  Despite Jane’s vociferous objections, the board of directors accepted the proposal.
  Verb form: vociferate
  Noun form: vociferousness

March 17, 2008

Root: LOQU, LOCU – to speak
Since people love to talk, it is not surprising that several important words come from this Latin root.  In addition to the words below, two others are fairly common in the arts.  The first, soliloquy (“speaking to oneself”), refers to a speech that a character in a play gives while alone on stage.  The second, ventriloquist (“speaking from one’s abdomen”), describes a performer who, by speaking without moving his lips, appears to project his voice into a dummy or puppet.

• circumlocution (n.) [circum-, “around” + locu-, “to speak”] – indirect speech; using more words than necessary
  Vance’s speech was too short, so he resorted to circumlocution to fill up the required time.
  Adjective form: circumlocutory
• colloquial (adj.) [col-, “together, with” + loqu-, “to speak”] – related to ordinary or familiar speech; informal
  Colloquial words such as “y’all” and “gonna” should be avoided in formal essays.
• eloquent (adj.) [e[x]-, “out of” + loqu-, “to speak”] – fluent, powerful, and expressive in speech
  The author was widely lauded for his novel’s eloquent closing passage.
  Noun forms: eloquence
• loquacious (adj.) [loqu-, “to speak”] – very talkative
  Priscilla’s loquacious nature led her to seek a job as a radio host.
  Noun form: loquacity
• magniloquent (adj.) [magni-, “large” + loqu-, “to speak”] – speaking in a lofty or pompous style; boastful
  Muhammad Ali was both a flamboyant showman and a magniloquent speaker.
  Noun form: magniloquence
  Synonym: grandiloquent

March 10, 2008

Root: JECT, JET – to throw
Several very common words use this root, from the Latin jacere.  These include the verbs reject (“to throw back”), eject (“to throw out”), inject (“to throw in”), object (“to throw against”), project (“to throw forward”), and subject (“to throw under”), all of which are fairly straightforward translations from their roots.  Two very important grammar terms, though less obvious, still relate to the root: subject (“the noun under which the sentence is thrown or constructed”) and object (“a noun that can be thrown up against another noun”).

• abject (adj.) [ab-, “away from, down” + -ject, “to throw”] – completely hopeless, miserable; low, vile
  Many people in Africa live their entire lives in abject poverty.
  Noun form: abjectness
• conjecture (n.) [con-, “together, with” + -ject, “to throw”] – speculation; guesswork
  Rather than rely on conjecture, Stan always provides plenty of evidence for his theories.
  Noun form: conjecture – to theorize with insufficient evidence; to guess
• dejected (adj.) [de-, “down” + -ject, “to throw”] – in low spirits; depressed
  Her mother’s illness often left Minka feeling dejected.
  Noun form: dejection
  Verb form: deject
• interject (v.) [inter-, “between” + -ject, “to throw”] – to insert between other things; to interrupt
  When she heard her friends arguing, Raina could not help but interject her opinion.
  Noun form: interjection – an isolated remark indicating emotion (such as “Hey!” or “Ouch!”)
• jettison (v.) [je[c]t-, “to throw”] – to discard or throw out; to throw overboard
  The pilot was forced to jettison most of his fuel before attempting the crash landing.

March 3, 2008

Root: VERT, VERS – to turn
Last week, we covered some vocabulary words using this very common root (from the Latin versus). This week, we’ll delve into a few more. You may have noticed that the Latin form of this root, versus, is used in English as well. Indeed, we use it often to describe sporting events and other competitions between two people or groups, such as the “Giants versus Patriots” Super Bowl or the “Fischer versus Spassky” chess match. Here, versus means literally “turned against one another,” or less literally, “in
opposition to.”

• adverse (adj.) [ad-, “toward” + vers-, “to turn”] – opposing one’s interests; antagonistic or unfavorable
  Jim had hoped to fly his kite today, but adverse weather prevented him from doing so.
  Noun form: adversity – a time of hardship; an unfortunate event. The word advertise uses the same roots, but in another way (“to direct information toward”).
  
  
• controversy (n.) [contro-, “against” + vers-, “to turn”] – prolonged argument or debate
  The new school dress code caused a great deal of controversy amongst the students and faculty.
  Verb form: controvert – to argue against; to debate or discuss
  
  
• introverted (adj.) [intro-, “inward” + vert-, “to turn”] – shy
  Maria was so introverted that she went an entire year without speaking in class.
  Noun forms: introvert – a shy person; introversion – shyness
  Verb form: introvert – to turn inward
  Antonym: extroverted – outgoing; friendly; social
  
  
• perverse (adj.) [per-, “very” + vers-, “to turn”] – determined to go against what is right; wicked
  Alfonse had a perverse desire to interrupt other people’s conversations.
  Noun forms: pervert – a wicked or deviant person, perversion – wickedness; abnormality
  Verb form: pervert – to lead astray morally; to turn from the right course
  
  
• traverse (v.) [tra(ns)-, “beyond” + vers- “to turn”] – to travel over, along, or through
  Milena traversed the treacherous mountain trail slowly and carefully.
  Noun form: traverse – a path across something; the act of crossing
  

February 25, 2008

Root: VERT, VERS – to turn
One of the more common Latin roots in English, versus pops up in all kinds of places.  Some common words, such as reverse (“to turn back”), convert (“to turn into something else”), and vertical (“turned upright”) make obvious use of it, but it appears in unexpected words as well: verse (“a turn of phrase”), universal (“all turned in one direction, of worldwide scope”), and even vertebrate (“an animal able to turn upright [because of a backbone]”).

• averse (adj.) [a(b)-, “away” + vers-, “to turn”] – turned away from; opposed to (used with “to”)
  Lana, who hates cold weather, is averse to vacationing at a ski resort.
  Verb form: avert – to avoid (used with events, not people: to avert a collision)
  Noun form: aversion – hatred (used with “toward”: an aversion toward broccoli)
  
  
• diverse (adj.) [di-, “two” + vers-, “to turn”] – turned in two or more directions; varied
  The forests of Alaska, surprisingly, support diverse wildlife, including over 100 species of birds.
  Verb forms:
       divert – to turn away from or distract (used with “from”: to be diverted from a path)
       diversify – to make more diverse
  Noun form: diversion – an activity (usually entertaining) that turns one away from a routine
  
  
• inadvertent (adj.) [in-, “not” + ad-, “toward”, vert-, “to
  turn”] – unintentional; on accident
  After her hiccup echoed through the silent theater, Rebecca apologized for the inadvertent disruption.
  Antonym: advertent – intentional
  
  
• subvert (v.) [sub-, “under” + vert-, “to turn”] – to corrupt; to cause the downfall of; to destroy
  During the Cold War, the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. sought to subvert each other’s society.
  Noun form: subversion
  
  
• versatile (adj.) [vers-, “to turn” + -ate + -ile, “capable
  of”] – able to turn in many directions; having many uses
  Jackie Robinson was a versatile athlete; in college, he starred in baseball, basketball, and track.
  Noun form: versatility

February 18, 2008

Root: ANIM – spirit, mind
From the Latin animus, this root is often used in words relating to life, such as animal (“creature with life or spirit”) and animate (“to give life or spirit to something”).  Interestingly, the root animus also is sometimes used to refer to a strong dislike (as in the word animosity); apparently, the ancient Romans thought that anything with a spirit must be capable of hatred!

• Magnanimous (adj.) [magna-, “large” + anim-, “spirit”] – noble and generous in spirit
  Always dignified in defeat, Andre Agassi congratulated his opponents magnanimously after each loss.
  Noun form: magnanimity
  
  
• Pusillanimous (adj.) [pusilla-, “very small, petty” + anim-, “spirit”] – cowardly; timid
  Carl’s pusillanimous refusal to give a speech in front of the class caused his classmates to tease him.
  Noun form: pusillanimity
  
  
• Equanimity (n.) [equi-, “even, equal” + anim-, “spirit”] – mental stability or composure, especially under stress
  Despite the rigors of medical school, Lorraine completed each task with skill and equanimity.
  Adjective form: equanimous (rarely used)
  
  
• Unanimous (adj.) [uni-, “one” + anim-, “mind, spirit”] – of one mind; in total agreement
  The judges had such similar views that their decisions were often unanimous.
  Noun form: unanimity
  
  
• Inanimate (adj.) [in-, “not” + anim-, “spirit, life”] – non-living; appearing to be dead
  The magician claims to be able to move chairs and other inanimate objects using only his mind.
  Noun forms: inanimateness, inanimation (archaic)
  

February 11, 2008

Root: PATH
Pathos, the Greek word for suffering, is a root for many words that deal with suffering, disease, or feeling and emotions.

• Apathy: n. (a- ‘without’ + pathos- ‘feeling’)
  lack of interest, enthusiasm, or concern.
  Prior to finding the right teacher, the student felt a general sense of apathy towards all his studies.
  
  
• Empathy: n. (em- ‘in’ + pathos- ‘feeling’)
  the ability to understand and share the feelings of another.
  The college freshman felt a great sense of empathy for his sister as she struggled to write her college application essay.
  
  
• Antipathy: n. (anti- ‘against’ + pathos- ‘feeling’)
  a deep-seated feeling of dislike; aversion
  The Lancers felt a great sense of antipathy against their arch rivals in football, the Cougars.
  
  
• Pathological: adj. (path- ‘disease’ + logos- ‘reason’)
  involving, caused by, or of the nature of a physical or mental disease informal compulsive; obsessive
  Jeremy was a pathological liar: he was unable to tell the truth even when it was in his best interest to do so.
  
  
• Pathetic: adj. (pathos- ‘suffering’)
  1 arousing pity, esp. through vulnerability or sadness
  informal miserably inadequate
  2 archaic relating to the emotions.
  I helped John study for tomorrow’s Algebra test because he had looked so pathetic when he had failed the last one.
  When John’s girlfriend broke up with him, he looked so pathetically sad we took him out to cheer him up.

February 4, 2008

• Castigate vb. To scold or punish severely
  Before castigating others about speeding, ask yourself if you always obey the speed limit.
  
  
• Obsequious adj. Obeying or performing a service for someone in an overly attentive manner.
  Hoping for a big tip, the waiter oozed obsequiousness, constantly flattering me and calling me "sir."
  
  
• Phlegmatic adj. Hard to get excited or emotional; calm
  Steven Wright makes a living being a phlegmatic comedian.
  
  
• Soporific adj. Sleep-inducing; sleepy
  Before I came to C2, I found math to be soporific. Now, I get a charge out of it.
  
  
• Sycophant n. A self-server who tries to gain the favor of others through the use of flattery or by being over-attentive.
  The king couldn't distinguish the honest advisers from the sycophants who flattered him for personal gain.

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